Cabinet+formation+&+heads+of+state

Distinguish parliamentary from presidential systems (eg: US, much of Latin America)

 * There are also semi-presidential systems, esp France
 * The cabinet is the executive in a parliamentary system; it is headed by a prime minister
 * Cabinets serve with the confidence of parliament; if parliament withdraws support the cabinet falls and either a new cabinet is formed or an election is called, after which a new cabinet takes office
 * Europeans talk of the 'Government' meaning the 'administration' of a particular PM and his/her cabinet (hence, the "Thatcher Governments")

The key varieties of cabinet government, which depend on the electoral outcome are:
1. Single party majority 2. Minimal winning 3. Oversized cabinets (including ‘grand coalitions’) 4. Minority cabinets

Semi presidential systems
Popular election of both President (head of state, head of government) and legislature (which then supports a 'government' headed by a Prime Minister who serves at the pleasure of both parliament and president)


 * France: Organization of the state**
 * Semi-presidential, with a dual executive
 * [|President] appoints a [|prime minister and government]
 * Motion of censure by parliament can remove gov’t—so gov’t is ultimately responsible to parliament
 * But executive dominates parliament, as in other parliamentary regimes
 * Parliament cannot remove the President
 * Political stability since ’58, and the institutions are seen as having done a good job
 * Some claim president has been too powerful
 * In 2000 term was shortened from 7 to 5 years
 * 2 major institutional challenges since the 1980s:
 * shift in political control between opposing coalitions
 * divided institutional control (cohabitation)
 * 1986-88
 * 1993-95
 * 1997-2002
 * The chances of cohabitation are now reduced as NA and presidential elections held at same intervals and close together
 * Why were these challenges not more damaging?
 * Political divisions between left and right narrower
 * Constitutional Council helps maintain equilibrium
 * Citizenry committed to stability

__The Executive__
 * Political circumstances determine how effective the president and premier are relative to one another
 * And note the bureaucracy is very powerful (see discussion under political economy)
 * President [|(French website here)]
 * Head of state from the Elysee Palace
 * Actively shapes broad policies through executive role
 * Elected by two-ballot system
 * 7 year terms, now reduced to 5
 * constitutional powers are considerable:
 * names Pm, approves cabinet picks, names others
 * presides over Council of Ministers
 * conducts foreign affairs
 * directs armed forces, incl nuclear
 * may dissolve national assembly
 * appoints 3 of 9 members of the Const Council, and can refer bills
 * emergency powers under Article 16 (used during ’61 crisis)
 * can propose constitutional amendments with approval of pm; then must gain parliamentary approval (majority) plus national referendum or 3/5 parl vote in congress
 * can call referendum to approve important policy initiatives or reorganize gov’t, but only if proposed change is approved by the gov’t
 * under Article 5 president ensures the continuance of the state…
 * contrast these powers with those of the Third and Fourth republics
 * Note that De Gaulle resigned in ’69 after a referendum to create regional gov’ts and reform the Senate; now precedent is set and referenda are rare
 * But note the presidents are weak during cohabitation
 * PM and Gov’t [|(the French website is here)]
 * Premier heads the gov’t, from the Matignon
 * Article 20 says gov’t “shall determine and direct the policy of the nation. It hsall hav eat its disposal the administration and the armed forces”
 * Article 21 authorizes pm to “direct the action of the gov’t” and is responsible for the national defense and execution of the laws
 * But the president, by virtue of being directly elected, has the advantage politically…
 * Under periods of unified control the president can operate with considerable autonomy
 * Premiers don’t last long (2-3 years) tho’ some go on to be president…
 * Even when they’re from the same party, the president and pm may not get along (Giscard d’Estaing and Chirac)
 * Premiers tend to attract blame when things go wrong but do not get credit when they go right
 * Cabinet meetings (the Council of Ministers) are not where decisions are made
 * Bureaucracy
 * Dirigisme gives them strength…and the regulatory powers are great
 * 2.3 million in the central civil service plus further 2.7 million in health and sub-national bureaucracy
 * it’s a good career, and widely respected
 * the grands ecoles are the elite: especially the ENA and the EP
 * the office of mediator investigates citizens complaints against bureaucracy, and does so with more frequency since its founding in 1973

Heads of state

 * Monarchies
 * Elected heads of state